Discover Upper Mustang: The Last Forbidden Kingdom Of Nepal

Upper Mustang, the last forbidden Kingdom of Nepal, is located in the remote northern region of Nepal, nestled high in the Himalayas bordering Tibet (China). Isolated from the rest of the world until the early 1990s, this ancient kingdom remained a hidden gem, preserved in time with its rugged desert landscapes, medieval Tibetan Buddhist culture, and untouched natural beauty. This region lies in the rain shadow of the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri mountain ranges in Nepal’s Mustang District, part of Gandaki Province. Upper Mustang has elevations ranging from 2,800 to 3,900 meters above sea level, which occupies the northern two-thirds of the Mustang District. Historically known as the Kingdom of Lo, Upper Mustang was once a thriving trade route between Tibet and India, with strong cultural and political ties to Tibet. It remained an independent entity for centuries before becoming part of Nepal in the late 18th century. It is still influenced by Tibetan culture, language, architecture, customs, and religion. 

The Ancient Kingdom of Lo: A Historical Overview

Upper Mustang, also called the ancient kingdom of Lo, is a remote and culturally rich region in Nepal that offers a rare glimpse into Tibetan traditions, dramatic desert landscapes, and centuries-old monasteries nestled amidst the Himalayas. 

History of the Forbidden Kingdom of Nepal

The Kingdom of Lo, now known as Upper Mustang, was established in 1380 by Ame Pal, who became its first king. For centuries, this kingdom remained a separate entity with strong ties to Tibet, functioning as an important salt trade route between Tibet and India. For centuries, this kingdom remained a separate entity with strong ties to Tibet, functioning as an important salt trade route between Tibet and India. The kingdom maintained its independent status until 1789, when it became a tributary state to the Kingdom of Nepal while still preserving substantial autonomy.

After Nepal opened its doors to foreign visitors in 1951, Upper Mustang remained closed to outsiders until 1992, earning the name “ Forbidden Kingdom”. Travel to Mustang was restricted. This isolation helped preserve its unique Tibetan Buddhist culture, ancient monasteries, and traditional way of life largely unchanged for centuries. The monarchy officially ended in 2008 when Nepal abolished its royal system.

Cultural and Spiritual Significance

Upper Mustang holds huge cultural and spiritual importance as one of the few places where pre-Buddhist Bon practices and Tibetan Buddhism have coexisted and evolved together. The region contains some of the world’s oldest Tibetan Buddhist monasteries and cave temples dating back to the 8th century. These ancient buildings preserve priceless Thangka paintings, historic texts, and sacred relics that hold immense value for researchers and devotees. The area serves as a living museum of Tibetan culture, particularly significant after China’s cultural revolution affected many similar sites in Tibet itself. Local religious festivals, prayer ceremonies, and traditional healing practices continue to play central roles in community life, making Upper Mustang a crucial repository of endangered Tibetan Buddhist traditions.

Why is Upper Mustang Called the Forbidden Kingdom?

Upper Mustang is called the Forbidden Kingdom due to its long history of isolation from the outside world and its restricted status. This remote region was closed to foreign visitors until 1992. For centuries, Upper Mustang preserved its distinct Tibetan-influenced culture, language, and way of life.

Geographic Isolation in Nepal’s Rain Shadow

Upper Mustang earned its “forbidden” status partly due to its extreme geographic isolation. It is located in the rain shadow of the massive Annapurna and Dhaulagiri mountains, which receive minimal rainfall, creating a desert-like landscape. This harsh terrain, with its deep valleys, high flatlands, and worn-out cliffs in shades of red, yellow, and brown, made the area naturally inaccessible. One of the world’s deepest Kali Gandaki Gorge, further reinforced this isolation, with seasonal winds and challenging mountain passes. This limited travel to specific seasons. These natural barriers helped the Kingdom of Lo maintain its independence and distinct cultural identity for centuries.

Restricted Area Status and Limited Access

The “forbidden” designation became official when Nepal’s government established Upper Mustang as a restricted area in 1992. To enter, visitors must obtain a special permit costing $500 for a 10-day visit (with additional charges for longer stays), making it one of Nepal’s most expensive trekking destinations. This policy aims to limit tourism impact while generating revenue for local development and cultural preservation. It has thousands of unbelievable attractions. Foreigners need a special permit, known as a Restricted Area Permit (RAP), to enter the region, and access is limited to protect its unique environment and culture. The restricted status of Upper Mustang also contributes to the protection of endangered species in this region. These restrictions have helped protect Upper Mustang’s fragile environment and cultural heritage while still allowing controlled tourism, maintaining its mystique as Nepal’s Forbidden Kingdom.

Major Attractions of Upper Mustang Nepal

The Upper Mustang Trek is a popular journey known for its unique beauty and rich cultural heritage. This remarkable trek offers stunning desert-like landscapes, ancient caves, and remote mountain villages that reflect centuries-old Tibetan traditions. Here are some of the major attractions of the Upper Mustang Trek:

Lo Manthang – Capital of Upper Mustang

Lo Manthang, the ancient walled capital of the Kingdom of Lo, stands as Upper Mustang’s cultural and historical centerpiece. It was built around the 15th Century by the first king of Mustang, King Amad Pal. It is surrounded by 6-meter-high earthen walls that once protected its inhabitants from invaders and harsh winds.  Within these walls, there are compact settlements, along with temples, and chortens (Buddhist shrines). It features the royal palace, which is home to the traditional kings of Mustang for over 25 generations. The city contains three major temples like Jampa Lhakhang (Jampa Gompa), Thubchen Gompa, and Chodey Gompa. They feature remarkable Buddhist murals, intricate wood carvings, and large Buddha statues that have undergone careful restoration in recent decades. Lo Manthang is also a very popular trekking destination nowadays, especially for those who are interested in the Upper Mustang region.

Sacred Sites and Monasteries

Upper Mustang houses numerous sacred sites and monasteries of profound religious importance. The Chungsi Cave Monastery, carved into the cliffside near Tetang village, contains meditation rooms and ancient Buddhist carvings. It is also believed that back in the days, Guru Padmasambhava visited here in the 8th century. He meditated there befor establishing Ghar Gumba in Lo Ghekar. The Ghar Gumba (Lo Gekar), considered one of Nepal’s oldest monasteries, sits at 3,950 meters elevation surrounded by sacred juniper trees. There are various decorations of the Holy books of Buddhism, manuscripts, murals, and statues here. Near Ghami village stands a 400-meter-long mani wall (prayer stone wall), one of the longest in Nepal. It is adorned with intricately carved stones bearing Buddhist mantras and deities. The region also features numerous chortens, sky burial sites, and meditation caves used by Buddhist practitioners for centuries, creating a landscape steeped in spiritual significance.

Majestic Mountain Vistas and Kali Gandaki Gorge

Upper Mustang offers spectacular mountain panoramas despite being in the rain shadow of the Himalayas. Views of Nilgiri, Annapurna, Dhaulagiri, and Tibet’s Tibetan plateau reward trekkers throughout the region. Similarly, the Kali Gandagi Gorge is next major attraction of this place. It is one of the deepest gorges in the world, carved by the Kali Gandaki River between the towering peaks of Dhaulagiri and Annapurna. As you trek through Upper Mustang, the gorge offers dramatic scenery with steep cliffs, rugged trails, and a mystical atmosphere. Rich in both geological wonder and spiritual significance, it has long served as an important trade and pilgrimage route connecting Tibet and Nepal.

Unique Tibetan Cultural Heritage

Upper Mustang preserves one of the world’s most authentic Tibetan cultural landscapes largely untouched by modernization. The local population primarily consists of Loba people, descendants of Tibetan ancestors who settled here centuries ago. They maintain distinct cultural practices, language dialects, and religious traditions closely aligned with Tibet rather than mainstream Nepali culture. Inside, homes typically contain family shrines with Buddhist statues and thankas (religious scroll paintings). The local dress includes distinctive woolen robes, striped aprons for married women, and elaborate turquoise-studded headdresses for special occasions. The region’s artistic traditions include thangka painting, mask making, and metal craftsmanship created using techniques passed down through generations. Ancient wall paintings found in monasteries and caves showcase a unique artistic style blending Tibetan, Newari, and Kashmiri influences, with some dating back to the 13th century.

Tiji Festival in Lo Manthang

The three-day Tiji Festival represents Upper Mustang’s most spectacular cultural celebration, typically held in May at Lo Manthang. This ancient ritual celebrates the victory of good over evil through the story of Dorje Jono, a deity who defeated a demon threatening the kingdom with drought and destruction. Monks from Chode Monastery perform elaborate masked dances depicting this spiritual battle, accompanied by traditional instruments including long horns, cymbals, and drums. Local villagers from throughout Upper Mustang travel to Lo Manthang for this event, dressed in their finest traditional attire. The festival combines profound religious significance with community celebration, offering prayers for good harvests, prosperity, and spiritual protection. For visitors fortunate enough to witness Tiji, it provides an unforgettable glimpse into living Buddhist traditions that have remained largely unchanged for centuries in this remote Himalayan kingdom.

Practical Guide to Visiting Upper Mustang

You need to be well prepared before starting your journey to Upper Mustang. Here are some guide that covers everything you need to know before setting off on your Upper Mustang adventure. As the trek itself is challenging, it is essential to know the best time to visit, the climate and permits, trekking routes, accommodations, and essential packing tips.

Best Time to Visit Nepal’s Forbidden Kingdom

The optimal time to visit Upper Mustang is between March and November, with peak seasons being spring (April-May) and autumn (September-October). Unlike most Himalayan regions, Upper Mustang remains accessible during the summer monsoon months (June-August) as it lies in the rain shadow area, receiving minimal rainfall while the rest of Nepal experiences heavy precipitation. Spring brings moderate temperatures and blooming wildflowers across the arid landscape, while autumn offers exceptionally clear mountain views and comfortable daytime temperatures. The Tiji Festival, typically held in May, adds cultural significance to spring visits. Winter (December-February) sees temperatures dropping significantly below freezing, with occasional snowfall making some high passes challenging, though some adventurous trekkers still visit during this quieter season.

Upper Mustang Climate and Temperature

Upper Mustang experiences a trans-Himalayan microclimate characterized by extreme aridity, intense sunshine, and significant temperature variations. The region receives less than 200mm of precipitation annually, creating desert-like conditions with strong winds, particularly in the afternoons. Weather patterns can change rapidly in this mountain environment, with clear mornings sometimes giving way to afternoon windstorms, especially in transition seasons. The region’s weather varies by season, as summarized in the table below.

Permits and Regulations

Upper Mustang is also a restricted area requiring a restricted area permit. Along with that, visiting this region requires obtaining several Upper Mustang trekking permits:

• Restricted Area Permit (RAP): $500 per person for the first 10 days, plus $50 for each additional day
• Annapurna Conservation Area Permit (ACAP): NPR 3,000 (approximately $25) and NPR 1,000 for SAARC nationals
• TIMS Card (Trekkers’ Information Management System): NPR 2,000 (approximately $17)

These permits must be arranged through a registered Nepalese trekking agency, as independent travel without a guide is prohibited in Upper Mustang. Permits are only issued to groups of at least two people accompanied by a government-registered guide. 

Visitors must respect local cultural sensitivities, including appropriate dress when visiting religious sites, and ask permission before photographing local people. Also, take permission while visiting or observing sacred places. The government strictly enforces these regulations to protect the region’s cultural heritage and manage tourism impact.

Popular Trekking Routes to Mustang

The Classic Upper Mustang route: The classic Upper Mustang Trek typically begins in Jomsom (accessible by flight from Pokhara or road) and follows the ancient salt trade route north along the Kali Gandaki Valley. This moderately difficult trek covers approximately 180km round-trip over 10-14 days, reaching maximum elevations around 4,000 meters. Key stops include traditional villages like Kagbeni, Chele, Syangboche, Ghami, and Tsarang before reaching Lo Manthang. 

The Lo Manthang Circuit: This trekking route to Mustang is usually for those who wish to delve deeper. This route starts and ends at Jomsom, forming a loop through the ancient kingdom with a mix of cultural villages, desert landscapes, and high-altitude passes. 

Nar Phu and Upper Mustang Trek: The Nar Phu and Upper Mustang Trek combines two remote Himalayan regions, offering a rare blend of raw Tibetan culture, dramatic desert landscapes, and high mountain passes. It’s a challenging and rewarding route for experienced trekkers seeking off-the-beaten-path adventure.

Accommodation and Facilities

Accommodation in Upper Mustang has improved significantly in recent years but remains basic compared to popular trekking areas like the Annapurna Circuit. Most villages offer simple teahouses or lodges with twin rooms, shared bathrooms, and common dining areas. In Lo Manthang and larger villages, a few higher-standard guesthouses provide private bathrooms and more comfortable amenities. Traditional homestays present authentic cultural experiences in some villages, allowing guests to stay with local families in centuries-old houses. Most accommodations provide simple meals that include dal bhat (lentil soup with rice), noodles, potatoes, and occasionally yak meat or local specialties. 

Electricity is not always available, but bigger villages usually have solar power and sometimes use generators. The internet is limited, with weak mobile signals in the main villages like Lo Manthang and almost no connection in remote places. Basic medical help is only found in Jomsom, and serious emergencies need helicopter rescue.

Essential Packing List

Visiting Lo Manthang requires thoughtful preparation, as the region’s remote location, high altitude, and dry, windy climate offer limited access to basic services. Whether you’re trekking or exploring the cultural heart of Upper Mustang, packing the right gear ensures both safety and comfort. Here’s a breakdown of essential items to bring along for a smooth and enjoyable journey. 

1. Warm jacket (down or insulated, for cold nights)
2. Windproof outer shell (jacket & pants)
3. Thermal base layers (top & bottom)
4. Trekking pants and T-shirts (preferably moisture-wicking)
5. Warm hat and sun hat
6. Gloves (light and insulated)
7. Good hiking boots and socks (wool or synthetic)
8. Backpack (30–40L for trekking)
9. Sleeping bag (rated for -10°C or lower)
10. Headlamp (with extra batteries)
11. Water bottles or a hydration system
12. Trekking poles
13. Cash in Nepalese rupees (no ATMs beyond Jomsom)
14. Sunglasses (UV-protection) and sunscreen
15. Basic first aid kit (band-aids, antiseptic, pain relievers, etc.)
16. Hand sanitizer

Pack weight should be minimized as much as possible, with a recommended maximum of 10-12kg in your personal daypack plus whatever your porter carries (typically limited to 15kg per trekker).

Beyond Upper Mustang: Connected Destinations

While Upper Mustang is the crown jewel of remote Himalayan travel, the journey doesn’t end there. The surrounding regions, especially Lower Mustang and nearby protected areas, offer rich cultural experiences, natural wonders, and excellent acclimatization points. From sacred pilgrimage sites and charming Thakali villages to fossil-laden gorges and hidden monasteries, these connected destinations perfectly complement the Upper Mustang adventure. 

Lower Mustang Highlights

Lower Mustang offers excellent acclimatization opportunities before entering the restricted Upper Mustang region, with several notable destinations. Jomsom, the district headquarters, serves as the gateway to Mustang. It has relatively developed facilities, including banks and hospitals, than Upper Mustang. The sacred pilgrimage site of Muktinath attracts both Hindu and Buddhist devotees with its eternal flame and 108 water spouts. Nearby Kagbeni, a medieval village at the gateway to Upper Mustang, features traditional Tibetan architecture, the imposing Red Gompa monastery, and stunning views up the forbidden valley. Moreover, the dramatic Thakali villages of Marpha, Tukuche, and Larjung are famous for apple orchards, brandy production, and traditional stone houses. The Dhaulagiri Icefall viewpoint offers spectacular mountain panoramas without requiring high-altitude trekking.

Complementary Nepal Destinations near Upper Mustang

Several nearby protected areas complement an Upper Mustang visit. The Annapurna Conservation Area (which actually includes Mustang) offers world-famous trekking routes like the Annapurna Circuit and Sanctuary. Shey-Phoksundo National Park in neighboring Dolpo features similar Tibetan cultural influences with even more remote landscapes and Nepal’s deepest lake. Travelers interested in Tibetan cultural heritage can visit Lumbini (Buddha’s birthplace) and nearby Kapilvastu, or explore the ancient monasteries of Tsum Valley. For similar arid landscapes, Nar-Phu Valley presents another restricted area with stark beauty and isolated villages. 

Within the broader Mustang region, visitors can explore the Luri Gompa cave monastery complex with its rare round chorten. The deep gorges between Jomsom and Tatopani hide numerous fossilized ammonites (shaligrams) considered sacred by Hindus. Also, the hot springs in Tatopani offer natural relaxation for trekkers returning from Upper Mustang adventures. These are some destinations that you can visit when you visit the Mustang region.

Summary

Upper Mustang, the last Forbidden Kingdom of Nepal, represents one of South Asia’s most extraordinary cultural and geographical treasures. This ancient land preserved its Tibetan Buddhist heritage through centuries of isolation, creating a time capsule of traditions largely unchanged since medieval times. The Kingdom of Lo’s unique position, politically within Nepal but culturally aligned with Tibet, has produced a distinctive cultural landscape found nowhere else on earth. From the walled city of Lo Manthang to remote monasteries settled on cliffs, Upper Mustang offers visitors an unparalleled journey through living history against a backdrop of breathtaking mountain landscapes. The region’s careful management of tourism through restrictive permits helps ensure these fragile cultural traditions and natural environments remain protected while still allowing travelers to experience this remarkable Nepal’s last forbidden kingdom.

FAQ

Is Upper Mustang still forbidden?

Upper Mustang is no longer completely forbidden but remains a restricted area. Visitors must obtain special permits costing $500 for a 10-day visit, travel with registered guides, and follow specific regulations. These restrictions help preserve the region’s unique cultural heritage while allowing limited tourism.

How difficult is the trek to Upper Mustang?

The Upper Mustang trek is considered moderately difficult. The main challenges come from the arid climate, occasional steep sections, and basic facilities rather than technical difficulty.

How much do you need to pay for an Upper Mustang trekking permit?

The Restricted Area Permit for Upper Mustang costs $500 per person for the first 10 days, with an additional $50 per day for longer stays. Travelers must also purchase an Annapurna Conservation Area Permit (approximately $25) and a TIMS card (approximately $17). These permits can only be arranged through registered Nepalese trekking agencies.